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Expatriation, expulsion, exil et fuite des cerveaux -
Expatriation,
Expulsion, Exile and Brain Drain
-
Expatriación,
expulsión, exilio y huida de los
cerebros
©
Gérard Verna. Pour tous commentaires ou
suggestions,
Cliquez
ici
Dernière
mise à jour:
2009.12.27
(Quebec)
Il
faut n'avoir jamais été contraint
d'abandonner sa famille, sa maison, ses amis, son pays,
sa culture et un peu de sa dignité pour traiter
avec mépris, méfiance, colère ou,
pire, indifférence, ceux qui vivent une telle
épreuve.
Mais
il faut ne s'être jamais vu offrir la chance d'une
nouvelle vie pour ne pas savoir ce que l'espoir peut nous
donner la force de faire ou d'accepter.
Tout
comme ces soldats étrangers que sur le monument
aux morts de la Légion étrangère la
France honore, "non pour le sang reçu mais pour le
sang versé", chaque société doit
apprendre à apprécier les exilés qui
la rejoignent, non pour ce qu'ils viennent prendre mais
pour ce qu'ils viennent donner.

Dossiers spécialisés
(Voir ci-dessous)
- Quelques
définitions
- La
fuite des professionnels
santé
- Paul
Roazen : Finding oneself in
exile
|
Monde
-
World
-
Mundo
Jean-Baptiste
Meyer
: Policy implications of the brain drain's changing face,
SCI Dev May 2003
Gilbert
Charles
: La Madelon de l'ONU, L'Express du 02/02/2004 (De Timor au
Kosovo, la Thaïlandaise Lalita Thonghankam ouvre des
restaurants pour les Casques bleus et les humanitaires. A
Kaboul, son établissement ne désemplit pas,
havre de paix dans une capitale afghane en état de
siège)
Jean-Baptiste
Meyer
: Policy implications of the brain drain's changing
face, SciDev.Net May 2003
Philippe
Pierre :
Mobilite internationale des elites et strategies de
l'identité, Revue Européenne des Migrations
Internationales, volume 19, numéro 1, 2003
The
Economist: Emigration
: Outward bound. Do developing countries gain or lose
when their brightest talents go abroad? Sep 26th
2002
Lindsay
Lowell and Allan Findlay for
Britain's Department for International Development :
Migration of Highly Skilled Persons from Developing
Countries: Impact and Policy Responses, 6 june
2001
New-York
Times File
: Immigration and Refugees
Afrique
-
Africa
-
Africa
The
Economist
: African migration : Home, sweet home for some, Aug 11th
2005 (How can Africa move from brain drain to brain gain?
)
Mali
Philippe
Bernard
: Mali, partir pour se nourrir, Le Monde 03.12.05
Ouganda
Pour
en finir avec la fuite des cerveaux, Le
phénomène de la fuite des cerveaux, commun
à presque tous les pays d'Afrique, "s'amplifie
d'année en année et tout le monde s'en moque",
note le Daily Monitor. A titre de comparaison, le quotidien
cite Cuba. Là-bas, on dénombre un
médecin pour 400 habitants et l'espérance de
vie moyenne est de 73,5 ans. En Ouganda, il y a un
médecin pour 25 000 personnes et l'espérance
de vie ne dépasse pas les 50 ans. "Les
médecins cubains, nombreux en Afrique noire, sont
là pour aider. Les médecins ougandais, quant
à eux, s'en vont parce qu'ailleurs l'herbe est plus
verte", ajoute le quotidien, qui propose quelques pistes
pour changer les choses. Outre le fait de permettre aux
enfants doués de continuer leurs études dans
des conditions satisfaisantes, il suggère de
développer l'esprit patriotique dès
l'école primaire. Sur le modèle
américain, les enfants apprendraient à aimer
leur patrie et n'auraient plus envie de la quitter une fois
parvenus à l'âge adulte. "Cela prendra du
temps, mais c'est réalisable", estime le quotidien.
Courrier
International,
28.01.2009
Zimbabwé
Catherine
Simon :
Les exilés du Zimbabwe, Le Monde 25.11.03
(Chassés par le régime de Robert Mugabe, les
fermiers blancs refont leur vie ailleurs. Les frères
Dawson, la famille Evans et quelques autres ont choisi le
Mozambique.)
Amérique
centrale et du sud - Central
and South America- America
central y del sur
Cuba
¡yara!
An online magazine by Cuban student activists in
exile
Paraguay
Hémorragie
migratoire au Paraguay : 430 000 Paraguayens ont
quitté le pays en 2005. ABC d'Asuncion
s'inquiète : c'est 15% de la population active (Le
Monde - 27 janvier 2006)
Amérique
du Nord - North
America - America
del norte
Canada
Martine
Turenne
: Boulots en fuite, LActualité, 15 mars 2004
(Après avoir confectionne les vêtements des
occidentaux, puis traite leurs données informatiques,
les travailleurs d'Asie accaparent des emplois
« intelligents ». La sous-traitance à
l'étranger est-elle aussi menaçante qu'on le
croit?)
USA
File
: International
Relations Center
: Reframing the Immigration Debate: The Actors and the
Issues
Jeffrey
Mervis :
Is the U.S. Brain Gain Faltering? Science, Vol 304, Issue
5675, 1278-1282 , 28 May 2004 (Fears that U.S. graduate
programs in the sciences are no longer attracting their
share of the world's brightest students don't square with
the facts)
Asie -
Asia
- Asia
Chine
Pierre
Haski
: Un cerveau bien couvé, Libération 21 janvier
2004 (Fan Shaobo a commencé sa vie active en France.
Aujourd'hui, il est entrepreneur en Chine. Un retour
facilité par l'Etat qui a su inverser la «fuite
des cerveaux», notamment grâce aux
«incubateurs», structures d'accueil
chargées d'assister ces Chinois venus d'ailleurs )
Inde
Philippe
Hensmans
: Inde. Il faut éviter les expulsions
forcées à Jagatsinghpur, en Orissa, Amnesty
International Belgique 30 novembre 2007
Amol
Sharma :
India : Come Home, We Need You. After largely ignoring them,
the Indian government is now cosying up to its diaspora. It
sees the 20 million Indians working overseas as a potential
source of wealth and expertise. But by inviting investment,
the government is also inviting demands for change, like
improved infrastructure and less red tape. FEER January 23,
2003
Mihir
A. Desai, Devesh Kapur & John McHale
:
The Fiscal Impact of the Brain Drain: Indian Emigration to
the U.S. December 2001
Indonésie
Dini
Djalal
: Bali's New Fashion FEER, August 07, 2003 (Local textile
and garment businesses have been hammered by Bali's tourist
slump. Here's how some are going overseas to stay
alive)
Malaisie
Cerveaux
en fuite : Attirés par de meilleures conditions
de vie et de travail, 304 358 Malaisiens ont quitté
la péninsule pour partir étudier, travailler
et souvent sinstaller à létranger
entre mars 2008 et août 2009. Ils sont deux fois plus
nombreux quen 2007. Ces émigrants, dont la
plupart cherchent à obtenir un visa permanent dans
leurs pays daccueil, représentent
aujourdhui plus de 1 % de la population nationale (25
millions dhabitants). De plus, ces mouvements
migratoires concernent surtout les travailleurs très
qualifiés de Malaisie, sinquiète le
quotidien The
Star
- 17.12.2009
Pakistan
Quitter
le Pakistan coûte que coûte : A Islamabad,
la capitale du Pakistan, il y aurait 4 000 entreprises de
"consultation éducative"... Il s'agit en fait de
services d'obtention de visas d'étudiant pour le
Royaume-Uni. Les jeunes Pakistanais des classes moyenne et
supérieure cherchent en effet à quitter
à tout prix un pays en proie aux talibans, aux
attentats et à une crise économique sans
précédent. La plupart de ces entreprises, qui
se chargent de tout depuis le choix de l'université
jusqu'au visa, sont en réalité peu fiables. En
2008, les autorités britanniques ont accordé
10 000 visas d'étudiant à des jeunes
Pakistanais... mais en ont refusé 17 000, indique The
Guardian.
(Courrier international, 16 avr.)
Tibet
Tibetan
Government in Exile
Official resource reports on human rights, news and culture,
and suggests ways to help Tibet.
Europe -
Europe
- Europa
Stefan
Thei
: Emploi - Comment rendre les Européens plus mobiles
? Newsweek - Courrier international - n° 733 - 18 nov.
2004 (La
réticence des citoyens de lUnion à
déménager pour trouver du travail
étonne Newsweek. Seraient en cause le protectionnisme
des pays et les excès de lEtat
providence.)
Lutte
contre la fuite des cerveaux Le 18 juillet 2003, la
Commission européenne a proposé une
série de mesures destinées à
empêcher les chercheurs de lespace
européen de partir à létranger.
Elles visent aussi à améliorer
lattractivité de lUnion européenne
pour les chercheurs du monde entier. La communication
présente plusieurs initiatives : une "charte
européenne du chercheur" pour améliorer la
gestion de leur carrière, un "code de conduite" pour
leur recrutement à léchelle
européenne, des mécanismes communs pour
évaluer et acter les compétences, les
qualifications et les résultats de la recherche, des
instruments plus avancés au service de la formation
et enfin des financements adéquats. Lobjectif
principal est de "faire de lUE léconomie
de la connaissance la plus compétitive du monde",
selon le commissaire européen à la Recherche,
Philippe Busquin : © Profession
Politique
Allemagne
Le
droit allemand de l'immigration réformé :
Gerhard Schröder est parvenu à un accord avec
l'opposition. Cette réforme doit permettre
l'entrée de travailleurs qualifiés en
Allemagne et répond à la demande des milieux
d'affaires allemands en raison de la pénurie de
travailleurs qualifiés. Le Monde, 26 mai
2004
Espana
Bibliografía
sobre el exilio publicada en 1999
(Antología
poética de la guerra civil española
1936-1939), Santiago de Chile, RiL Ediciones,
Selección, introducción y notas de
Andrés Morales
France
Florence Santrot
: De l'expatriation à la mobilité
internationale, Le journal du net, 01 Juin 2005 (Le concept
d'expatriation évolue à mesure que les
multinationales ne réfléchissent plus en
termes de nationalité mais de compétences de
leurs salariés.)
Laurent
Fargues
: Les expatriés cèdent la place aux cadres
multiculturels Le Monde Economie 04.01.05
Laurent
Fargues :
"Les entreprises favorisent les contrats locaux" Le Monde
Economie 04.01.05
Georges
Dupuy :
Agriculture : Le champ du départ L'Express du
07/03/2005 Céréales en Ukraine, pêches
au Portugal, coton aux Etats-Unis... De plus en plus de
paysans français, en proie au blues, s'expatrient.
Mais d'autres difficultés les attendent
Italie
Ambassade
de France a Rome
: Les difficultes de la recherche en Italie : la situation
et les chiffres, les initiatives publiques et privees et la
fuite des cerveaux BE Italie numero 25 - 6 septembre 2004
Pologne
Leszek
Kostrzewski
: Quand les chômeurs allemands vont bosser en Pologne
Gazeta Wyborcza - Courrier international - n° 732 - 10
nov. 2004
Suisse
Jean-Luc
Vonnez :
Pourquoi le Prix Nobel de chimie ne restera pas en Suisse,
Le Temps. 11 octobre 2002 (Beaucoup de scientifiques
renommés s'exilent à l'approche de la
retraite. Les retenir tout en préparant la
relève: un vrai casse-tête.)
Anciens pays
communistes- ex
Comunists Countries - ex
Mundo comunista

Les
20 ans d'un pique-nique inoubliable 19.08.2009 | Adevarul
via courrier international.
Pour
célébrer la réconciliation entre la
Hongrie et l'Autriche après plus de vingt ans
d'isolement par le rideau de Fer. La frontière devait
être ouverte symboliquement pendant trois heures et la
nouvelle avait attiré les Allemands de l'Est,
officiellement en vacances en Hongrie, et désireux de
passer coûte que coûte à l'Ouest.
Adevarul rappelle les circonstances épiques de cet
événement qui est encore
considéré par les Allemands, comme une
clé de la future réunification du pays. Le
barbecue organisé autour "des saucisses et
bière" a été pour la Hongrie une
manière de "tester Moscou".
Jennifer
Joan Lee
: Don't expect a cushy job bonanza for expats quite yet The
International Herald Tribune , January 24, 2004
Russie
Philippe
Randrianarimanana
: Informatique : Les programmeurs russes rentrent au pays
© Courrierinternational.com 12 aout 2003
(Le
temps de la fuite des informaticiens russes attirés
par des opportunités à létranger
est révolu. Malgré des salaires trois fois
moins élevés, les programmeurs prennent le
chemin du retour.)
Israel &
Monde arabo-musulman - Israel
& Arab-Muslim World - Israel
& Mundo arabo-musulmán
Algérie
Maâchou
Blidi
: Le retour de Gaston, Le Quotidien d'Oran, 14 septembre
2004
Dubai
Otto
Pohl
: Expats bask in Dubai's boom, The International Herald
Tribune, August 28, 2004 (But
many are shy about putting down roots)
Sites
spécialisés -
Specialized
Sites
-
Sitios especializados
Migrar.org
surge como respuesta a la actual situación de flujos
migratorios que se dan en el mundo globalizado y
también en España, que se ha convertido en los
últimos años en país receptor de
inmigración -
Dominique
Guellec
: Brain Drain - Sci Dev (As globalisation speeds on,
goods, services and people are moving across national
borders as never before. Recently, one group of migrants
those highly skilled in science and
technology has become the focus of worldwide
scrutiny. )
Colombia
: Colombianos en el Exilio EL COMUNERO Organo de
difusión y Expresión Política de los
Asílados y Refugiados Colombianos.
Berlín.
Dossiers spécialisés
- Quelques
définitions
- La
fuite des professionnels
santé
- Paul
Roazen : Finding oneself in
exile
|
|
Quelques définitions (Larousse)
Bannissement
Peine
interdisant à un citoyen de
séjourner dans son pays.
Le
bannissement temporaire en France [de 5
à 10 ans], est tombé en
désuétude.
Exil
nom
masculin (lat. exsilium , bannissement)
1.
Situation de qqn qui est expulsé ou
obligé de vivre hors de sa patrie;
état qui en résulte.
2.
Situation de qqn qui est obligé de vivre
ailleurs que là où il est
habituellement, où il aime vivre.
3.
Lieu où réside une personne
exilée
Expatrier
verbe
transitif
Obliger
qqn à quitter sa patrie.
S'expatrier
verbe
pronominal
Quitter
sa patrie pour s'établir
ailleurs.
Expulsion
1.
Action d'expulser, d'exclure.
2.
en droit français
a.
Mesure administrative obligeant un
étranger dont la présence peut
constituer une menace pour l'ordre public ou
un étranger en situation
irrégulière, à quitter
le territoire national.
b.
Procédure qui a pour but de faire
libérer des locaux occupés sans
droit ni titre ou sans droit au maintien dans
les lieux.
Interdiction
de séjour
L'interdiction
du territoire est une condamnation de justice
qui entraîne votre éloignement du
territoire et vous empêche d'y revenir
pendant la durée de
l'interdiction.
Elle peut
être temporaire ou
définitive
|
|
La fuite des professionnels santé
Birmanie
: Pénurie
de médecins dans les prisons : Au
Myanmar, il ny a quun médecin
pour 7 314 détenus, note le magazine
Irrawaddy. Au total, on compte 34 docteurs, 19
auxiliaires médicaux et 22
infirmières pour 248 664 prisonniers
répartis dans les 42 prisons et 109 camps de
travail du pays. Evidemment, dans ces
conditions, tous les prisonniers ne sont pas
soignés et les docteurs ne peuvent traiter
que des troubles mineurs, observe un
médecin de Rangoon. Selon un ancien
prisonnier politique, la plupart des détenus
ont recours à des remèdes
traditionnels qui leur sont donnés par des
membres de leur famille lors de visites.,
31.12.2009 - The Irrawaddy via C.I.
Le
Ghana perd son personnel qualifié :
Selon un rapport des Nations unies
consacré à l'immigration
internationale, 50% du personnel qualifié du
Ghana aurait choisi le chemin de l'exil fin 2005,
rapporte le Daily Graphic. Les mêmes
statistiques révèlent que dans cette
vaste "fuite de cerveaux", on compte 90 % de
professionnels de santé (médecins,
infirmières, techniciens en laboratoire...).
Parmi les conséquences majeures de cette
situation, une forte mortalité infantile et
un retour vers la médecine traditionnelle.
28.09.2007
La
saignée du corps médical africain,
Selon l'OMS, un quart des médecins
formés sur le continent choisissent l'exil.
Manchester
= Malawi. Du moins en nombre de
médecins. Le rapport publié par
l'Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS)
met l'accent sur une fuite des cerveaux
létale : celle du personnel médical.
Ainsi, 56 % des médecins migrants se
déplacent des pays pauvres vers les pays
riches, alors que 11 % seulement migrent dans la
direction opposée. Dans un contexte
où l'Europe forme 173 800 médecins
par an et l'Afrique 5 100 (ce qui revient à
1 toubib pour 115 000 habitants), voir pire, la
dynamique tient de la dynamite.
Bras
de fer. Sur ce plan, l'Afrique subsaharienne
est «l'épicentre de la crise
mondiale», estime le rapport. Alors
qu'elle totalise 11 % de la population
planétaire, elle ne compte que 3 % du nombre
total des professionnels de santé. Un quart
des médecins formés en Afrique
travaillent en dehors du continent.
«Salaires de misère, soutien
insuffisant de la part de l'encadrement,
défaut de reconnaissance
sociale...» dénonce l'OMS.
Responsabilité continentale : quand les
Amériques consacrent près de la
moitié de leur budget à payer
médecins et infirmières au
prix de bras de fer avec le FMI, comme au Nicaragua
l'Afrique n'y alloue que le
tiers...
Former.
Surtout, le pillage des pays du Nord est parfois
institutionnalisé. «Des pays comme
l'Australie, la Grande-Bretagne ou les Etats-Unis
sont experts en la matière, note Michel
Bruguière, de Médecins du monde ;
la France est plus hypocrite, puisqu'elle puise
dans le Maghreb sans reconnaître les
diplômes...» Il manquera par exemple
35 000 infirmiers au Royaume-Uni en 2008 et 112 000
en Finlande en 2010. L'OMS rappelle aux pays du
Nord vieillissants de former
davantage de soignants pour éviter de
dépouiller le Sud. L'Afrique n'est ni Cuba
ni les Philippines qui exportent volontairement des
cadres médicaux. Avec des effets pervers (En
2003, 25 000 infirmières ont quitté
les Philippines, alors que 8 400 y ont
été diplômées cette
même année). L'OMS recommande enfin
aux pays d'Afrique subsaharienne d'augmenter leur
budget de santé d'au moins 10 dollars par
personne et par an. Pas gagné pour un pays
comme la République démocratique du
Congo, qui n'y accorde actuellement que 15 dollars.
Un record. Christian Losson : Libération 08
avril 2006
Bulletin
of the World Health
Organization
: Plumbing the brain drain, vol.82 no.8 Genebra
Aug. 2004
|
|
Paul Roazen : Finding oneself in exile
Queen's
Quarterly, v.104(3) Fall'97 pg
404-413.
The
burden of conscience: Varian Fry was the first head
of the Emergency Rescue Committee, a US
organization that sought to secure the escape from
France of "political and intellectual refugees"
after the 1940 armistice with Germany. From an
office in Marseilles, Fry struggled against the
Vichy government (and often against his own
government) until he was arrested and expelled from
France in September 1941. He managed to rescue such
notables as Marc Chagall, Max Ernst, and Lion
Feuchtwanger, as well as hundreds of people who
were not at all famous - for in the final analysis
Fry found all victims of fascism to be "political
and intellectual refugees."
Exile
is an ancient sentence. Adam and Eve were, because
of their disobedience, expelled from the Garden of
Eden. Sophocles'Oedipus not only requests that he
be sent away from Thebes because of his crimes, but
even before that blinds himself from seeing the
human community. Oedipus'self -imposed isolation
was almost complete, except for the company of his
daughter Antigone. And treason, that most heinous
of deeds, could lead to a punishment often
considered worse than death - exile.
SOCRATES
could have fled Athens rather than drink the cup of
hemlock, but chose otherwise. James Joyce, living
away from his native Ireland, kept hearing the note
of banishment in Shakespeare's plays. When the
citizens in Coriolanus first chime in with the
judgment that he be exiled, Coriolanus retorts: You
common cry of curs, whose breath I hate As reek o'
th' rotten fens, whose loves I prize As the dead
carcasses of unburied men That do corrupt my air, I
banish you! And here remain with your uncertainty.
Let every feeble rumour shake your hearts! Your
enemies, with nodding of their plumes, Fan you into
despair! Have the power still To banish your
defenders, till at length Your ignorance - which
finds not till it feels, Making but reservation of
yourselves, Still your own foes - deliver you as
most Abated captives to some nation That won you
without blows! Despising, For you, the city, thus I
turn my back, There is a world elsewhere. (III,
iii)
Such
powerful sentiments make a kind of sense which is
only partly understood in our own century. Once it
seemed plausible for political theorists to propose
a state of nature. That concept of a pre - social
existence implied that either human beings had
deteriorated from a golde age, as in Jean - Jacques
Rousseau's thinking, or else that civilized
community was threatened by an eruption of
barbarism, as in Thomas Hobbes' system. John
Locke's own version of the state of nature was the
one to be treasured by liberalism; the founders of
American democracy, for example, proposed that they
were with - drawing their allegiance from George
III and instead setting up their own new community.
"In the beginning," Locke had argued, "all the
world was America." The idea was that if a
political community felt tyrannized over, the
people can pull out, dissolve the social contract,
and then re - establish a new system with a
different set of rules. If leaders ever violate the
trust of their followers, then a peaceful
transition can make way for a different system
altogether.
Some
such mythology underlies modern democracies. Yet
one of the most frightening features of twentieth -
century history has been the disappearance of the
social luxuries of all preceding times.
Statelessness is a uniquely modern phenomenon, one
which forces us to rethink all prior notions of
exile. For when the Nazis withdrew citizenship from
native German Jews, and then expelled them from the
nation's borders, that meant exile in a wholly
novel sense. For no state can now be expected to
admit citizens without proper papers. Yet Hitler
taught us a lesson that we might not like to hear.
Under the conditions of contemporary life, the
Lockean state of nature has vanished. If the state
withdraws citizenship, there may now be no place to
go. It turns out that we are more dependent on the
state for our liberties than any of us might like
to think. We ought not to forget the plight of
displaced peoples, boatloads of human beings
refused landing rights. Refugees and detention
camps have changed our image of exile. To be forced
out from a country can entail something different
from old - fashioned concepts of exile. Modern
technology means that the empty spaces that once
existed politically are apt to be no longer
there.
Spiritually,
circumstances have changed as well. It is true that
all intellectual activity involves some version of
inner exile, withdrawal from the surrounding
community. People who are at one with their fellow
creatures do not feel the necessity of coming to
terms with the need to challenge other beings.
England's seventeenth century, for example, is
usually considered the greatest single period of
political philosophy in the English language; the
fundamental social conflicts that resulted in a
civil war prompted thinkers to get beyond the usual
banalities of existence, and promoted fundamental
reconsiderations of social life. If North America
has been relatively impoverished in social and
political thinking, at least compared to Western
Europe, it may be because all the ngood fortune of
this continent has meant that people could evade
reconsidering the exceptional circumstances that
permitted them to be relatively lazy
intellectually.
At
the same time there is something different in the
kind of detachment creative thinkers are apt to
have in our own time. Machiavelli, for example, was
a high civil servant for some years, and it was
only after he was put out to pasture that he wrote
his masterpieces. When he felt able to throw down a
gauntlet to all previous political thought,
insisting on the radical divorce between Christian
morality and the public necessity of nreason of
state, he could call upon years of practical
political experience. He dedicated The Prince to a
living political leader, and yet proposed ideas
that would remain notoriously like the devil's
advice even now, almost 500 years later. One of the
marks of his break with contemporary political
thought was that he wrote in Italian, as a
Renaissance man, rather than in Latin. He was both
at one with his time and yet opposed to it - a
phenomenon we rarely see in our own
time.
It
has to be puzzling what sort of audience
contemporary social philosophers can be expected to
have in mind. Someone like Hannah Arendt has to be
considered an exception; herself an exile from
Germany and its cultural traditions, she insisted
on chastising her native land at the same time that
she tried to renew its kind of philosophic
thinking. Her contempt for what her book on
Eichmann called "the banality of evil" was directed
toward the low level of thinking characteristic not
just of the bureaucratic mind but of the corrupted
state of mass society in general.
The
conditions of modern life have insidiously
undermined the possibilities of composing
fundamental social insights, so that commentators
have been tempted to think that the great tradition
of political philosophy, which started in ancient
Greece, has come to its end. The death of political
thought has been repeatedly proposed in the last
half-century, especially by those most responsible
for promoting its demise. Academic trade - unionism
has divided up sociology, philosophy, psychology,
history, and politics so that social thinking would
be unrecognizable to our predecessors.
There
has been a hot - house quality to too much recent
political thought, as writers think they are
working in the great tradition when in reality they
are simply writing for one another, commenting not
even on the leading figures of past centuries but
instead elaborating on the most recent outpourings
from university life. If one protests that in the
guise of being loyal to academic trade unions the
great questions of the past are being neglected,
one risks being accused of the supposedly dread
crime of elitism. Hobbes never ran any such risk of
allowing his work to pander nto the demands of
everyday life. His complicated reasoning was
correctly perceived as a threat to the powers -
that - be, and he high - tailed it to France for
the composition of The Leviathan. He, like
Machiavelli before him, would be denounced as a
disturber of intellectual peace, and both of them
have had to endure a rather unsavoury reputation
ever since.
But
until our present century such people could expect
at least the support that comes from being
critically examined. There are social supports to
creativity, and contemporary society makes it hard
to imagine how old - line social and political
thought can be successfully undertaken. It can be
painful to be different, and the lures of being
conditioned to conformity undermine the
possibilities of detachment. Thorstein Veblen, the
one North American thinker sure to be known abroad,
once wrote a piece on the special position of the
Jew as a natural outsider, and Veblen, who himself
had one of the most wretched academic careers
imaginable, knew at first - hand how detachment can
be both painful as well as desirable. To complicate
matters, Veblen has been understood as writing on
behalf of the intellectual pre - eminence of Jews
in response to the Balfour Declaration. A Jewish
state, Veblen feared, would wipe out the
marginality which, he held, was a key to Jewish
originality. Such an idea would hardly be
considered politically correct, but then Veblen
scorned the idea of being socially
acceptable.
Internal
exile may be harder to achieve than it once was.
Efforts to educate a larger proportion of society
than ever have been accompanied by an unprecedented
degree of semi - literacy. We have succeeded in
producing more that one generation of students who
would not dream of reading a morning newspaper. We
know of civilized Germans who remained at home
despite their inner opposition to Nazism; that such
people could survive at all is testimony to their
participation in traditions of thought which
provided them a sustenance from the past which I
doubt would be possible today. As Madame de Stael
declared after the French Revolution, "liberty is
ancient, despotism is modern." Any such aphorism is
bound to be at odds with today's conventional
wisdom implying that history moves in a progressive
direction, ensuring as a matter of course greater
harmony and enlightenment. The impact of television
and Hollywood can amount to the watering down of
ideas to the lowest common denominator. It can be
disturbing to travel in Europe and find the same
movies playing as back at home. The impossibility
of escaping from a common culture does not seem to
me a happy prospect.
I
am more hesitant to speak about what exile can mean
for strictly literary writers. Someone like
Vladimir Nabokov, for example, managed to flourish
in more that one language. Thanks probably to his
aristocratic past he succeeded in coping with life
outside his native land, but it can hardly be an
accident, or just a tribute to excessive taxes for
writers here, that shortly after the success of
Lolita he went to live in Switzerland.
Edmund
Wilson is another example of someone who drew
strength from inner traditions at odds with his
surroundings. He kept appealing back to an older
America, less commercially driven and more
committed to the enduring significance of great
books. His good friend F. Scott Fitzgerald
concluded The Great Gatsby with a lyrical testimony
to a lost world.
Nostalgia,
it might be thought, can be too easy and come too
cheaply. But an opposition between the old and the
new can itself be a source of creativity. Nabokov
did not have to spell out concretely what he felt
confronted with on this continent, although he did
write an autobiographical Speak Memory! And Joseph
Conrad did not have to recur explicitly to his
Polish roots in order to alert us to at least one
source of the depths of his insights. It seems
almost unbelievable that in a second language
Conrad could achieve the simplicity and grandeur of
his English. Yet it would not be far - fetched to
be reminded with Lord Jim, and the theme of
betrayal, of Conrad's own feelings connected with
the abandonment of the long - suffering Poland he
had left behind.
Exile
is a tragic inevitability, and such a disability
seems to be an essential constituent of strength.
Andre Gide seems out of style now, in a way which
was not true in my youth; but in his Philoctetes he
described how an invalid hermit devotes himself to
something above the gods. As Edmund Wilson put it
in The Wound and the Bow, the misfortune of
Philoctetes' island exile enables him to perfect
himself. It is, I think, a relatively recent idea
that genius and disease are inevitable linked with
one another. The idea that one cannot have insight
without suffering was shared by Thomas Mann as well
as Sigmund Freud, each of whom knew
exile.
Tradition
has it that when Mann was asked, on arriving in
California before World War II, how he would manage
without German culture, he retorted: "I am German
culture." Yet after the war he went back to Europe.
In the case of Freud, this pioneer of modern
thought wrote again and again about how alienated
he felt in Vienna, and it was true that his
reputation abroad was always far ahead of any
deference he was granted in the city to which he
was brought as a small child. Yet despite Freud's
expressed distaste for Vienna, he stayed there long
after it had ceased to be safe, and only because of
his foreign contacts was he able to get away in
1938 to the safety of England, as he put it: "to
die in freedom."
POLITICAL
exile is not identical to being a spiritual
outcast. And neither form of being an outsider is
any kind of insurance for being creative. Much of
human experience leaves sensitive people feeling
estranged. It used to be the self - proclaimed
function of university education to promote
estrangement. The whole notion of an ivory tower
was that education be in principle not relevant to
everyday life: in the precious breathing space of
higher education there was an opportunity to help
detach students from their inevitably parochial
backgrounds. Any such intention of bringing
students in contact with the best that has been
said and thought, at odds with life as they know
it, is not apt to be popular today. The loss of
that particular kind of exile may be at the expense
of future generations.
PAUL
ROAZEN is Professor Emeritus of Political and
Social Thought at York University, and most
recently the author of How Freud Worked: First -
hand Accounts of Patients. Copyright 1996,
SilverPlatter International NV, WebSPIRS Version
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